This is, again, a set of era-oriented articles to give a better concept of what plants were used to win the battle for a variety of settings. The PROBLEM was that there wasn’t any concise information source. So what you have here is one of the thickest column articles ever written. It had to be broken down:
- Part One: Plants in Early Historical Warfare
- Part Two: Death by Poison: Factual Poisonings and Poison Projectiles
- Part Three: Native American Weaponry
- Part Four: Plants in Medieval to Industrial Age Warfare
- Part Five: Plants in Modern Warfare
Since nearly every game system discusses some aspect of weaponry, camouflage, etc. in their sourcebooks, I am not going to come up with game stats. This is strictly an open-ended collection of facts and suppositions to develop civilizations, characters, and scenarios for your setting.
Plants in Early Historical/Primitive Warfare
From ancient civilizations to the primitive weapons still used today in areas such as Africa and Australia, this first section discusses simple weapons and plants used in every area of the world except North America. The First Nations of North America have their own article coming in two months. No, I have probably not covered everything. Any anthropologists or archaeologists want to add information to the column, I’d be grateful.
Europe/Mediterranean
Weapons and Armor SpearsThe oldest known spear still in existence is 380,000 to 400,000 years old. These ancient spears, found near Hannover, Germany, were made of Picea (Spruce) trunk wood and were carved with skill. It is believed they were used like javelins. Also from that time period was a yew lance tip found in England in 1911 and subsequent evidence shows yew was used consistently for Paleolithic spears.
Ash wood eventually became the most common wood used for spear hafts. Light-colored and straight-grained, it was likely the first popular wood. It is found in North America, Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia. Ash was used by the Celts, Germanics tribes, and the Greeks.
Archery
Archery equipment is found all over the world in early and primitive culture, except for Australia, where the main projectile weapons were spears and boomerangs. The bow seems to have been invented near the end of the last ice age about 8,500 years BCE. The oldest evidence in Europe comes from arrows found north of Hamburg, Germany, dating from the late Palaeolithic Hamburgian culture (9000–8000 BC). The arrows were made of pine wood and consisted of a main-shaft and a 15–20 cm long fore-shaft with a flint point.
Mesolithic arrows have been found in England, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. They were often rather long (up to 120 cm [4 ft.]) and made of hazel (Corylus and Pomaderris, wayfaring tree (Viburnum), and chokecherry (Cornus). Some still have flint arrowheads preserved; others have blunt wooden ends for hunting birds and small game. The ends show traces of fletching that was fastened on with birch-tar. Mistletoe was also often used in Europe to glue the fletching on the shafts.
The oldest bows found so far come from the Holmegård swamp in Denmark. In the 1940s, two bows were found made of elm wood. They had flat arms and a D-shaped midsection. The middle part was biconvex. The complete bow was 1.50 m (5 ft. long).
Most Neolithic bows are made of yew, the modern nickname of a well-preserved natural wood found in the Ötztaler Alps. The "iceman" carried an unfinished yew longbow, with a bowstring of nettle or flax fiber.
In the Levant of the Mediterranean, arrow-shaft straighteners were known in the Natufian culture. Their early microlithic (small blades) evidence of levantine shouldered Khiam-points are most certainly arrowheads.
Egyptians made and used composite bows, but also had Carob wood and Acacia for bowmaking. The bow became the main weapon of war in the Middle East used by the Assyrians and Egyptians who fired it from chariots to great effect.
The Greeks and Romans did not find this technique useful. Advances in armor made the bow less effective and they often campaigned in hilly or forested areas that were unsuited to chariots. The development of horse archer or mounted archer is a cavalryman armed with a bow.
The Saami used (and still use) bows made of compressed pine with a backing of birch.
Other Weapons
The Egyptians often used the Acacia spp. for their articles of war
Axes: Although more of a tool than a weapon in the real world, all axes are weapons in high fantasy. Still, the Franks were known for carrying a sword, spear, and axe into battle. Ash and Hickory were the best substances for making the haft because of shatter-resistance.
Boomerangs: Known as “throwing woods” the oldest found in Poland (18,000 years old), and another found in Germany (800 to 400 BCE) made of ash.
Shields
Shields were for protection and many early devices were made of wood, of which only the bosses survive. For the Northern regions, a considerable find of lime-wood shields from around 350 BCE clue use in as to why Old Norse for shield was lind, (linden). Other surviving shields are made from spruce, fir, or pine, the Celts may have used aspen for battle shields, and ash shields are likely.
Armor
Linen was an important textile in the Roman Republic and in Spain, and was sometimes woven into protective garments, as at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC, similar to the heavy cotton tunics worn in battle by Aztec warriors when the Spanish arrived in Mexico in the 16th century or the protective clothing made from Kevlar in use today. Textiles are capable of absorbing a great deal of the shock of an arrow, lance or knife, or even of a bullet.
Battlefield Injuries and Food Supplies
It has been shown that many mosses, including Sphagnum, contain antimicrobial secondary metabolites. Sphagnum was, therefore, well suited for use as a packing material for wounds, absorbing lost blood and fluids, as well as providing a degree of infection-resistance. A Bronze Age warrior found in Lothian had his chest packed with Sphagnum, it is thought in an attempt to heal a wound, although it obviously failed.
Greeks
St. John's wort was made into a salve and used to heal wounds and burns by the Greeks. They took the plant to war with them to stop bleeding.
Dictamus albus was used in Greece for wound healing for spear and arrow wounds.
Achillea, otherwise known as yarrow, was used to treat wounds during the Trojan War. Maintains it was first used by Achilles when healing his soldier’s wounds, but most say it was a different Achilles, a student of Chiron. Romans learned from the Greeks to carry yarrow into the battlefield. It would be packed into open wounds to prevent a soldier from bleeding to death before he could be treated. The oil of yarrow may also have contributed some antibacterial properties to reduce infection as well.
Agrimonia was first described in writing by the Greeks who used it to treat wounds (especially on the battle field). Eupatoria, as in agrimonia eupatoria, is derived from the name of King Mithridates IV Eupator (132–63BCE), ruler of Pontus in northern Turkey. He is well known in history for his knowledge of plant lore as well as the Mithridates Wars which he led against the Romans.
According to legend Greek soldiers took myrrh into battle to treat their wounds.
Licorice: In the Mediterranean, Warriors used it for its ability to quench thirst while on the march
Paeony: The genus is supposed to have been named after the physician Paeos, who cured Pluto and other gods of wounds received during the Trojan War with the aid of this plant.
Fennel: Gladiators & Warriors became fearless and strength full after digestion. Said the battle of Greeks against Persians at Marathon, 490 BCE, took place in a field of Fennel.
Alexander the Great fed his troops onions at mess and they became known to give strength in battle. Alexander the Great also used Persian saffron in infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds.
Roman
Sorrel: Roman soldiers sucked on the leaves to alleviate thirst.
Carum Carvi or caraway was used by Roman Gladiators after battle to help them heal their bodies and said to increase strength and vitality. Roman legions made a bread of flax that they could take with them to march long distances and then go into battle.
Grapes produce vinegar and wine and these were safer to drink than water in those days. Roman soldiers were given rations of vinegar to drink to stay healthy.
Other Uses for Plants by Warriors
Woad and Blue-Bodied Celts
Julius Caesar described the Brittani with, “Omnes vero se Britanni vitro inficiunt, quod caeruleum efficit colorem.” This has been repeatedly translated to: “All the Brittani, indeed, dye themselves with woad, which produces a dark blue coloring.”
Woad was probably NOT used as a skin colorant in Britain for battle-ready Celts. The SCA has been trying to accurately re-create woad paint for years. Experiments show that you definitely cannot (and should not) tattoo yourself with it. Woad makes terrible body paint unless treated a lot, and even then it will not last longer than a day or two. It is believed that another translation of Caesar’s would be, “dye themselves with glazes” or “infect themselves with glass” and other chemicals were involved.
However the person who discussed his attempt at tattooing with woad noted that the wound healed quickly with lots of scar tissue (no blue though), which may confirm that woad was used to close battle wounds.
Ancient Celts on the mainland once used cedar oil to preserve the heads of enemies taken in battle.
Greeks
Greeks fed parsley to their horses before battle so they would run better.
It is said that Alexander the Great conquered areas where the aloe grew so that he could use the medicine for his soldiers; other reports state that he kept one particular island (Madagascar? Socotra?) to grow aloe for his soldiers.
There is a tradition in Sistann (in eastern Persia) that Alexander's army escaped starvation in 330-327 B.C. by eating a lichen known as manna (Lecanora esculenta).
Chasteberry: The Greek physician, Dioscorides, recommended that it be used to make beverages to help keep the wives of soldiers chaste while their husbands were in battle. The Romans did exactly the same for their wives when the legions were away from Rome and also spread the aromatic chaste tree leaves around the home for the same purpose.
Thyme: The Greeks believed that it gave courage to those that used it, especially soldiers, who would rub the herb on their chests to anoint themselves with its fragrance.
Romans
Mullien used by Roman soldiers to make torches.
Wormwood reportedly was placed in the sandals of Roman soldiers to help soothe their sore feet.
Nettles: The Roman Army brought it to Britain; they flogged their legs and arms with nettles to keep their circulation going. The Romans added thyme to their bath water to impart vigour, courage and strength.
As with today’s soldiers, Roman troops deployed away from home for years on end could suffer from depression. The cavalry would have likely made use of thyme to ease depression.
Other
Roccella tinctoria: Purple Dye. Cleopatra's royal ships' sails at the battle of Actium were dyed purple.
The besieged Jews in Jerusalem added the fenugreek plant to the scalding liquid that they poured on the Roman attackers. The plants’ gelatinous fibers made the scaling ladders slippery and difficult to climb. 400 Haric (Alaric) the Goth demanded 3000 lbs of black pepper as part of the ransom for the city of Rome. His assaults on the city continued, and Rome fell on 24 August 410 after the third siege.
Military Symbolism and Folklore
Universal: Many trees have, through their isolation, appearance, or position, been chosen as a popular meeting place, including for soldiers to gather prior to battle, or to meet the enemy.
Greeks
An apple is said to have started the Trojan War.
The Ancient Greeks thought that Hercules used a garland of parsley so they would crown the winners of games and war with garlands of parsley in honor of the great feats of Hercules.
Roman Crowns and Garlands
Romans wore garlands for everything, including into battle. When an army was freed from a blockade, its deliverer was presented with a crown of grass that was growing on that spot, called the Crown Obsidional. Someone who saved the life of a Roman Soldier was presented with a chaplet of leaves. The highest honor was the Crown Triumphant, of laurel leaves, which today is given to a general who achieved a signal victory. The laurel head accessory was reserved for high officials and dignitaries at political galas. It was the symbol of triumph and military leaders would send a branch of laurel to their emperor to let him know they had won the battle.
For bravery in battle, Roman soldiers were rewarded with crowns of olive
Crowns for war heroes also included dill, oak leaves and fennel.
Other
The Ancient Yew of Ashbrittle
Many stories surround the Ashbrittle Yew. The mound beneath the tree is thought by many to be Bronze Age and a pre-Roman chief is said to be buried there. According to local legend, the church was built on a druidic circle near which battles between Celts and invading Roman soldiers took place, and the heads of fallen Roman soldiers were brought triumphantly back here to be buried. Indeed, yew trees were very important to the Celts.
The Babylonians believed chewing the seeds before battle made them invincible. Ancient Celts were said to drink a beverage with borage to boost bravery. Vikings used rosewood (Sedum) to boost courage before battle.
Before a battle, the Druids of old are said to have kindles fires of Rowan wood and spoken incantations over them in order to invite the inhabitants of the Sidhe to take part in their fight.
Modern use of the iris as a royal symbol may trace back to Clovis, a sixth-century king of the Franks. According to one legend, a large force of Goths trapped his army, with his back up against the Rhine River near Cologne. As he searched for a way to escape, Clovis noticed in the distance a large colony of golden irises extending far out into the river. He realized this was a sign that the water was shallow enough there for his troops to cross. In another version of the tale, Clovis was able to sneak across the river and attack the rear guard of the Goths by finding flags growing in a shallow area. Yet another legend involving Clovis is more colorful, if not believable. The king was having a hard time at war, constantly losing battles. One day an angel appeared to a holy man, explaining Clovis needed to get rid of his coat of arms—three black toads—and replace it with three irises. The angel gave the man a shield with the irises on a bright blue background. The holy man brought the shield to Clovis’s wife, Queen Clotilde, who gave it to the king. Clovis got rid of the toads, used the new symbol, and began to win battles. Whatever the reason, angelic or riparian, Clovis adopted the iris as his family’s badge. Perhaps knowing this tradition, King Louis VII of France selected the iris as his house emblem when he was a young Crusader.
India/Malay/Philippines
Weapons
Weaponry was slow-coming to West Asia. Harappan were primitive when compared to artifacts of the same age from Mesopotamia. They resisted innovation and stuck with cruder stone arrowheads and thin bronze spearpoints. Between the Aryans and the Chinese, the earlier Indus civilization was not only lost, but reconstructed. From the early Vedic years, a form of martial arts developed and the Mahabharata discusses battles involving bows, swords, rocks, trees, and fists.
The spears were generally made of bamboo, rattan, reeds, areca, or wood, but could also be made entirely of metal.
Palm wood: indigenous people in the Philippines utilize the hard outer wood of the palms in the genus Livistona to make bows and spear shafts
Bows were also made of bamboo, cane (rattan), or yew, especially in the Himalayas
Arjuna was used to make weapons, but which ones are unspecified. Rosewood was used to make staffs and spears because of its durability. Today, axlewood, Portia, willows, hardwickia, king tree, babul, bael, wild tecoma, sundry, ash, benteak, bola, dhaman, and mulberry are used for javelins and handles for agricultural equipment, therefore it stands to reason they were also used for weapons in more ancient times.
Since prehistoric time in India and surrounding areas, bamboo has been used as one of the weapons for hunting and fighting. In Peninsular Malaysia, the Temiar and Semoi make their traditional hunting weapons such as blow-pipes from two internodes of bamboo. For both peoples, the blowpipe has both a symbolic and a practical value: the possession of a blowpipe is a sign that a man has reached adult status so that he is able to join hunting parties and become a full member of the community. In Irian Jaya, people make their arrowheads from small bamboo species of Racemobambos and of Nastus, and the arrow shafts from small, straight, thin bamboo culms of Schizostachyum species.
Palm wood is widely used by indigenous people in the Philippines to make bows and spear shafts
Booby Traps
The "Malayan Gate" consists of a cut sapling about 3 inches in diameter sprung horizontally between two trees with one end projecting a few feet. The end is armed with bamboo spears and triggered so that someone tripping on a string will release the sapling and be impaled with bamboo. On festive occasions, Malays put green bamboo in specially prepared fired. The air enclosed in the joint gets heated and the joints burst with a heavy report, like a small pistol.
Nagas and other hill tribes in India use the hardened outer portions of spiny bamboos as knives and spears. Jungles and forests about villages are often covered for miles with these formidable weapons. Short, sharp bamboo knives called pangis are buried along the footpath so as to go right through the foot of the unwary traveler approaching the village. The foot is by accident placed between these, and being cut by the one in front, is rapidly withdrawn, only to have the other two violently driven in from behind. Sometimes thousands of these surround a village. Pits are also dug and lined with spears so that the unwary animal or traveler falls to a certain death.
Other Uses
Starfruit: From Malaysia, juice from fruit will remove stains from hands, clothes, weapons.
Legends and Symbolism
Mahwah: Sacred tree of India, when the Hindus attacked, the natives fought to save their sacred trees, which the Hindus attempted to destroy.
It is written in the laws of Manu that the sacred threads used by “Khatriyas” or “Rajput” (The warrior class) are of “Sana.” (Indian Sunn Hemp). To put on a saffron robe is the sign of “no quarter” for the Rajput warrior.
Malay: timber species with fine grains and lustrous surfaces and believed to possess strong spirit such as kemuning and kenaung are carved into hilts of kris, badek, and kerambit
From Kautilya's Arthashastra, we find hundreds of spells involving ingredients from plant and animal as well as their products to harm enemies, protect oneself and protect one’s armies. “Having applied these remedies to secure the safety of himself and his army, a king should make use of poisonous smokes and other mixtures to vitiate water against his enemy.”
China/Japan
Weapons
Acacia catechu: Cutch native to Asia; makes bows, spear handles, sword handles.
Chinese privet is the suspected origin of waxwood, an ideal material from which to fashion staffs, spear shafts, and walking sticks, because it is tough, hard and flexible, and can absorb shock without breaking. However, a downside to "Wax Wood" is that it is very vulnerable to wood worm. This can be treated if found early enough with various powders. Various kung fu styles also use Wax Wood for many weapons such as spear shafts, three-section staff, bo staffs, and poles. Supposedly white wax develops its own patina.
Bizenzori-odachi (Quercus acuta), made of a cream-colored wood, is listed as “white oak” in English, and called shira-kashi in Japanese. Shira-kashi is hard, heavy, and tough wood. White oak is used extensively in Japanese martial arts for some traditional weapons such as bokken and jo. It is valued for its density, strength, resiliency, and a low chance of splintering if broken by an impact relative to the substantially cheaper red oak. Urban legend attributes Japanese White Oak (“Kashi”) as the choice wood but, by law, no white oak is harvested in Japan. Virtually all white oak used in the manufacture of weapons in Japan is imported.
The wooden sword called a "shinai" used in the Japanese martial art of kendo is made from longitudinal strips of strong bamboo culms. Several strips are tightly bound together with string. There are many weapons made from bamboo, including bows and arrows and sharpened bamboo stakes. Strong swords made from bamboo culms are used in the ancient Japanese martial art of kendo. The objective is to score points by striking your opponent's head, arms and torso in strategic places. The opponents wear heavy, protective armor.
Other Uses
The Bubishi: a work originally written in China, with a large section on herbals, including a section on six plants used to treat head trauma from iron objects as well as an ointment of 51 plants for treating weapon wounds.
Dragon’s blood: The warriors in ancient China used to carry it with them when going into battle. If they were wounded they used the resin to stop their wounds bleeding so much.
Other historical writings describe how the warriors of Genghis Khan (died 1227) took medicines like Acorus calamus (Tib. shu dag) to stop bleeding. The herb relieves pain and detoxifies after consumption of contaminated food. During times of war, senior generals made their troops collect Acorus calamus when the army camped near rivers. They used the herb to purify water by placing it in the river, upstream of the camp.
Japanese Samurai First Aid for battle wounds Jin bu huan (Gynura pinnatifida) cultivated in both China and Japan and is main ingredient of Yunnan Bai Yao powder, which staunches heavy bleeding. Yunnan Bai Yao was later a standard issue to North Vietnamese troops during their war against South Vietnam and the United States.
Shirane-senkyu (Angelica sinensis): relieves pain without suppressing consciousness.
Soboku (Caesalpinia sappan): Clears blood (bruising)
Kôka (Carthamus tinctoria): reduces inflammation
Warfare
Wars were fought over ownership of ginseng, a medicinal herb grown in the Orient, and over camellia sinensis (tea), an herbal beverage plentiful in the East Indies. The first Chinese Emperor offered soldiers the same weight of silver as the wild ginseng they brought him. In the year 221 B.C. the emperor Shoangtje sent over 3,000 foot soldiers to find wild ginseng, those who returned empty-handed were beheaded.
Symbolism
In Japan, sweet flag is a symbol of samurai bravery because of the swordlike leaves.
Australia/New Zealand/Polynesia/Pacific
I’m throwing in modern primitive weapons still used today, simply because.Weapons and Armor
Australia/New Zealand
Acacia: Mulga Wood, spear, boomerang, club, spear thrower, women’s fighting stick, death pointer, shields. The only club for men was the non-return boomerang, and for woman one type of fighting stick, plus the digging stick. The non-return boomerang and shield were apparently not used in the Pitjantjatjara area. The winta (or wurinpuru or mangulpa in Pintupi) was a short, heavy, broad-bladed stabbing spear, with a blade of mulga heart-wood, 2-2.5 meters in length. Women’s fighting sticks (makulpa or kuturu) were of mulga or bloodwood.
The kurtiji was a soft-wood shield used by Pitjantjatjara people. Men also used a wide shield of bloodwood or mulga, with incised designs. The tjara narrow hardwood shield (western Pintupi) was made of soft wood at Cundelee, had a handle carved in the back and was decorated with incised designs.
Aglaia, araucaria: Spear thrower
Akeake: This small tree has hard black wood with creamy-white stripes. The slender trunk was favored material for weapons and tool handles.
Albizia, Arcontophoenix: spear
Argyrodendron peralatum: Red tulip oak: sword, spearthrower
Bactris gasipaes, juani: stem wood made into bows, arrow points, lances, clubs
Burret: sword, spear
Diospyros ferrea: Queensland Ebony: wood was useful for making woomeras and spear tips.
Bats-Wing Coral Tree (Erythrina vespertillo). The light, tough timber was ideal for shields. All shields used by the Arunta, Ilpirra, Luritcha, Warramunga, Waagai, and other Central tribes, are made of the light soft wood of Sturt's bean tree (Erythrina vespertilio).
Eucalyptus: Eucalyptus gummifera "Bloodwood": The European common name refers to the copious gum which extrudes from wounds to the bark. This gum was used as an adhesive in tool or weapon making.
The Sandpaper Fig (Ficus opposita) has rough leaves used for the final smoothing of wooden tools and weapons.
Grey Mangrove: boomerang, shield
Iriartea ventricosa: tao stem wood for harpoon staves, arrow points
Kanuka red wood was used by Maori for many purposes including weapons
During the early Musket Wars and the later New Zealand Land Wars, the Maori used large, thickly woven flax mats to cover entrances and lookout holes in their fortifications. Some warriors used plaited flax to make vest jackets that successfully prevented fatalities from musket balls.Kurrajong
Oenocarpus multicaulis: jephue isá, stem wood for bows and arrows sold to tourists
Pinanga ligulata, pinang: stem for lance shaft
Prunus turneriana: Dunu: Boomerangs, used sometimes for fighting and rarely for hunting, were made from carefully selected sections of the flange buttresses of these hardwood trees.
Throughout the Urabunna, Ilpirra, Luritcha, and Arunta tribes, spears are made of one piece of a light wood such as the shoots of Tecoma Australis, but it is more usual to have the terminal part made from a separate piece.
Xanthorrhoea macronema: Grass tree. This particular species has thin flower stalks but others have light, straight spear-like stalks up to 25mm in diameter and two to three meters long. They were used as spear shafts in some areas. The large trunked species produce a valuable resin which often exudes from the trunk in large globules after fires. This was used by aboriginal people as an adhesive in tool and weapon-making.
Weaponry on the Malville and Bathurst Islands made from Ironwood (Casuarina) or Bloodwood (Corymbia).
Trukese weapons: coconut wood used to make spears; fiber cord to make slings
Many spears were made from light wood, such as Oyster Bay pine (Callitris) saplings. Spear shafts could be bound with yacca, gum sap, and kangaroo sinews.
One type of wooden spear was made out of a single piece of dark hardwood, which may be derived from some species of acacia, or, so the natives say, from the Desert oak (Casuarina Decaisneana).
The Ngadjonji of Queensland
The Ngadjonji made a great variety of spear types and were highly skilled in their use. In most cases the spear shafts and points were made of different materials. Straight lengths of lighter hardwoods, such as jiman were favored for shafts, though in recent years bamboo is an acceptable substitute for lighter spears. The spear points were usually made from the very hard wood of jidu, julu (julu julu (Xanthostemon whitei, Red Penda), or junjum (Xanthostemon chrysanthus, Golden Penda). These were further hardened by burning in a fire and scraping off the charred surface to form the point. Points were attached to the shafts using fine split-lawyercane binding and special resins. There were many different designs for spear points and their arrangement on the shaft—each for its particular purpose. Heavy killing spears for hunting large animals or serious fighting would have a single point and were often (shaft and point) made from a single length of hardwood. Fishing spears and spears for hunting smaller animals and birds were lighter and often had multiple points.
The Ngadjonji were very adept in the use of spear-throwers (woomeras) which were used to greatly increase the force and speed of the throw. Swords were made of much harder wood from trees such as jidu and junjum (Xanthostemon chrysanthus, Golden Penda). Shields were made from the relatively light and soft wood from the flange buttresses of fig trees such as magurra, gabi and other figs. Ngunuy (Xanthorrhoea johnsonii, Grass Tree), a word shared by Yidiny and Ngadjon, has resinous sap used as a lacquer in shield-making. Such swords and shields were used mostly for the somewhat ritualized combat at intertribal corroborees (warrima).
Pacific/Hawaii
Acacia koaia Hawaiians used the wood for spears and paddles
Casuarina: Formerly a sacred tree in eastern Polynesia, hard, durable wood favored for war clubs.
Coconut: The most useful of all plants in the Pacific; of ceremonial importance and its leaves a sign of high rank in Polynesia and Micronesia; specific trees or two trees planted together serving as boundary markers in Tuvalu; trunk used spears and weapons; midrib of leaflets or pinnules used for small arrows, chewed pieces of mature kernel used as popgun ammunition on Tuvalu; coir of husk of both green and mature nuts used to make strong fibre and cordage (sennet) for slings. Unopened flowers are protected by sheath, often used to fashion a kind of pressed helmet for soldiers. The "branches" (leaf petioles) are whippy (strong and flexible) enough to make a redouted switch, the traditional use of which in tribal justice was for instance revived by referendum among the Gilbertese community on Choiseul (Solomon islands) in 2005. In Polynesia: The leaves of the coconut were used to make weapons such as the long war lances or pikes known as niu, tao, or maehae.
Colubrina oppositfolia Hawaiians used the very hard wood to make weapons
Dodonaea viscose: The Maoris used the wood of this shrub to carve their weapons of war
Kanuka (Kunzia ericoides) and Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium): Weapons and tools were fashioned from heavy straight stems.
Guettard: Spears. Indigenous from eastern Africa and tropical Asia to the Marshall Gymnostoma: timber used for weapons in New Guinea
Islands and southeastern Polynesia, but not Hawaii.
Hibiscus tiliaceus: soft wood used in bows, spears, wood dried for six months used for fireworks in Hawaii; fiber used as slings and cordage for bowstrings
Intsia bijuga: war clubs, and a variety of other articles of inter-island trade between Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji
Toi used throughout Polynesia to make spears, clubs and weapon handles.
Solomon Islands: Most shields were made of resin-covered wickerwork. They are light and strong with a looped cane handle on back. The fiber on this one was stained black before being woven, on others the color is added later. A few Solomon Island shields are inlaid with shell, but only in museum collections; possibly the shell was added later. This style of shield is represented in a petroglyph in Hoilava River area. Other weapons include bows and arrows, spears including some tipped with human bone, sling shots, many varieties of stone-headed clubs and fighting sticks.
Other Uses
Ptury: It has long been known that the natives of Central Australia use the leaf of some shrub in order to invigorate themselves, after long marches, or when they are desirous of undergoing great fatigue, as during a battle.
Douglas Fir: This was the preferred species for Hawaiian war canoes. The Hawaiians, of course, did not log the trees; they had to rely on driftwood.
War Magic/Folklore
Hibiscus tiliaceus, beach hibiscus tree, beach mallow: branches borne in battle by priests as a good omen and allowed to fall in retreat in Hawaii; born by attendants at presentation of first fruits to kings on Easter Island; branches used as tapu markers to delimit restricted areas in Hawaii; used to make spears used in typhoon magic in Ulithi.
Dodonea viscose: In Tahiti, Apiri was flayed apart and used by the victors of a battle as decoration around the head and waist
Africa
Specific Tribes
Samburu
Carrying spears, swords, and clubs (rungus), as well as sticks, is still very important in Samburu society, in particular to indicate the position of a man in life. Spears are normally only carried by warriors (moran), while elders carry sticks. Clubs are virtually carried by every male, from small herding boys to ancients, while bows and arrows are more commonly seen in young boys. Straight branches of various Acalypha species (Euphorbiaceae) were preferred to make arrows. Meliaceae (Tarenna abyssinica and T. holstii) and Olives (Olea capensis, O. europaea) were the preferred species for rungus (warclubs), while the latter two species as well as Dombeya goetzenii and D. rotundifolia were in high demand for spear shafts. Gnidia glauca (Thymeleaceae) was the only species used as arrow poison. In this case the bark of the tree was boiled in water for several hours, and the remaining residue smeared on arrow tips.
Maasai
The Maasai tribe usually incorporates some form of red in to their attire. Some believe that red is a special color to them because the tribe traditionally created the color for their shields by mixing the clay with the red sap of the solanum campylae fruit or cattle blood. White was derived from local clays, and black from the skins of burnt gourds. Younger warriors were only allowed the use of black, white, or gray on their shields, indicating that the shield illustrated here was probably owned by a proven warrior herder. Shields remain one of the Maasai warrior's most important tools.
The Maasai of east Africa use a drug called Olkiloriti which is obtained from the preparation of the root and bark of the Mimosa nilotica tree. It is used as a narcotic, excitant, stimulant, and to prevent hunger and thirst. Warriors use Olkiloriti prior to battle in order to enter a state of frenzy, and to prevent fear & fatigue.
Pappea capensis: Maasai warriors use this plant to attain courage, bravery and endurance.
Turkana
The Turkana arrow consists of an iron arrow-head called ecipet with a socket for the shaft (asiin) from the ekali (Grewia bicolor) or engoomo (Grewia tembensis) tree. Arrowheads are usually produced from worn-out tools or pieces of iron remains. The technique of manufacturing arrow-heads is similar to that used in the manufacture of spears: a piece of metal is heated in the fire and hammered into the required shape. At the end of the shaft, feathers (ngakopir) from an eagle (egole) are fixed. The feathers are attached to the shaft with resin (eminae) from the epetet (Acacia nuica) tree. The resin is ground and crushed and mixed with water.
The Turkana hunting or combat bow is usually made from the hard wood of the edome (Cordia sinensis) tree. A leather strap (aput) or sometimes a piece of woven bark from the edome tree (auno) is fastened to the bow by means of a knot to form the bowstring. Bows differ in size; some can be quite large depending on the size of the arrows employed
The Turkana spear is made and used exclusively by male members of the tribe. The spear head (eporoto) and the spear shoe (erimoc) are made of iron. Iron pieces are bought and further shaped and cut using a harder chisel-shaped iron blade. The shaft (amorok or atinget) is usually carved from the ekali (Grewia bicolor) tree. The blade (etwel or angajep) is covered with a protective sheath (akuroru) made of cow’s hide. (The hide of the tail of a donkey may sometimes be used.) The spear and the shaft are joined with the resin (eminae) of the eroronyit (Balinites aegyptiaca) tree. The sticky substance is applied to the tip of the shaft and in the sockets, and heated over a fire. Spears are usually eight feet long and leaf-bladed.
The esebo is coarsely made from the edome (Cordia sinensis) or epat (Grewia bicolor) tree. Men carve the esebo using either a spear (akwara) or a wrist knife (abarait). The rounded end of the club is carved and protruding “knobs” are shaped on it. These protrusions are known as ngakarakarae in Turkana, and make the hurling club even more effective.The knobkerrie also serves as an excellent combat weapon.
The aselej stick is carved from the eureepe (Olea europaea) tree by men using either a spear (akwara) or a wrist knife (abarait). A piece of leather is wrapped around the bottom part (aabor) of the shaft (asiin). During fighting the leather part of the stick may be used as a grip.
Zulu
Gasteria: G. croucheri is highly prized for it magical properties by Zulu warriors in Natal, who believe when it is eaten it makes the user partially invisible. It is often consumed before faction fights or in an attempt to hide from an enemy.
Weapons
Pink Ivory - (birchemia zeyheri) bright pink to watermelon red. Hard & heavy, very fine texture and takes a beautiful polish. One of the rarest woods in the world. Turnery, inlays, fancy woodwork, knife handles & writing instruments. East & South Africa. Maerua crassifolia: The wood is whitish, very hard and is used to make handles for weapons in the northern parts and staves in Morocco. The ash furnishes a black dye used by the Masai of E Africa to colour their shields. Oxytenanthera abyssinica The strong woody culms are valued for spears, bows and arrows.
Xylopia quintasii: Its resilience and toughness make it suitable in small sizes for purposes requiring elasticity with strength, such as for tool-handles, pestles, spear-shafts, canoe-paddles, etc. In Gabon it is used to make bows and cross-bows. Grewia vilosa: Senegal to N Nigeria, and in the drier parts of tropical Africa and in Arabia and India. The stems are used for spear-shafts and walking-sticks.
Diospyros: The stems are used in Congo (Brazzaville) to make paddles and spear-shafts, and carvings for masks and fetishes.
Balanites aegyptiaca: The gum hardens to firm cement which is used in the Narok district of Kenya for fixing arrow and spear-heads to the shaft .
Other Uses
Africa: Soldiers chewed cola nuts as an appetite and thirst suppressant, enabling them to travel long distances without food or water.
Coffee: More than a thousand years ago, nomadic mountain warriors of the Galla tribe in Ethiopia mixed deep red berries with animal fat as a food that provided them with strength, endurance and an "extra something" that helped them endure long battles.
Ottoman armies arrived in Yemen in 1536 and soon soldiers discovered the taste and coffee’s invigorating properties. Ottomans helped popularize coffee consumption throughout their vast empire, stretching from Yemen in the east to Hungary in the west. Wherever the army went, coffee was brought along. In fact, there were specially trained people in charge of coffee logistics—storage, preparation and service.
As elsewhere, flax is cultivated for its seed in Ethiopia. A wound with a bullet inside is stuffed with the same and wrapped. After a given time period, the flax "draws” the bullet to the surface where it can be extracted easily.
South/Central America/Mexico
Weapons
Black Palm (Astrocaryum standleyanum) used by many South and Central American tribes to make bows, arrows, canes, etc.
Mesquite: The Seri and Yaqui of Mexico made weapons among other things. Chichimeca also used mesquite to make weapons.
Called Tahari by the natives of Peru, its Brazillian name is Pau d'Arco which means bow wood. Natives made hunting bows from the dense resilient wood found in many of the Tabebuia species. The wood is still used for training weapons especially in the martial arts.
Krugiodendron ferreum, or Ironwood, was used by Mayans to make bows, arrows, and lances.
Blowpipes in the Amazon were typically made from the pucuna capsi (Lucuma bifera), or Bactris gasipaes, as well as the Brazilian paxiuba (Socratea exorrhiza). The darts were shaped out of the Maximiliana maripa palm leaves and coated with curare. These blowguns were accurate to 30 meters, and were personal items never to be traded or sold. The blowgun of the Amazon was never formally used as a war weapon.
Peru: The Cuncho people use bows made of Chonta (Guilielma spp) with long arrows with barbs of chonta and shorter arrows with points made of reed to inflict deep tearing wounds. They also use wooden swords called macana.
Other Uses
Liquid Copal from the copaifera tree The Guarani people of the Amazon use it to heal wounds after battle,
The Munduruku Indians used andiroba seed oil for mummifying human heads taken as war trophies.
War Paint: The people of the Amazon used to fruit of the Annato (achiote) to make red war paint.
Bixa orellana (lipstick tree): Probably originally domesticated for body paint, against evil, for war, and against insects. The Mayan Indians of Central America used the bright dye as war paint.
Chocolate was reserved for warriors, nobility and priests.
White Coal: Used by Guarani people of the Amazon to heal wounds after battle.
Cassava/Manioc: The Arawauk Indians committed suicide by eating the uncooked tubers rather than being tortured by conquistadores.
Indigenous people have used Iporuru for recovery after battle and hard work.
Often yohimbe tea was taken by warriors in preparation for battle.
Maca Root: Lepidium peruvianum, Spanish chroniclers noted Peruvian warriors consumed boiled Maca root before battle. Native to the Andean Mountains, it was used by Incan warriors to enhance their strength and stamina, but was not taken after battle to protect the conquered women from uncontrollable sexual impulses
Kava-kava was used in ceremony before wars and to council about peace.
Miscellaneous Uses (Not specified)
Staghorn Clubmoss: explosive when lit, it can be used to create theatrical lightning and was added to fireworks.
Club moss powder was used for early fingerprint detection.
Charcoal for Smelting
Hornbeam: From China to Europe, also known as ironwood, its charcoal burns hot enough to smelt iron.
Alder Buckthorn: Euro. The wood has been used in the past for making high quality charcoal and it was often specially cultivated as a coppice for this purpose. Its excellent slow and reliably burning qualities were put to use in making fuses and gunpowder.
Wood: Arrows, spikes, Butcher's spikes and skewers.
Ash wood has also been used for making charcoal, especially for color-manufacturers, but also for the gun powder industry.
Next up: Part Two: Death by Poison: Factual Poisonings and Poison Projectiles
