The Rocky State of Your Campaign
Fluoride: Fluoride is prevalent in modern day society, but can also be found naturally in springs and in mineral form. Nowadays it is used in cavity prevention, manufacturing, and in the production of such inventions as Teflon. Fluoride-containing compounds are incredibly diverse, making it impossible to generalize. Soluble fluoride salts have been known to cause death at four grams. Most cases are caused by inhalation or exposure to insecticides or rodenticides, or over-ingestion of toothpaste. In the past, glass-etching and molten metalwork could create fluoride gases. Volcanic ejecta can cause fluoride poisoning in historic incidents. Today, poisoning comes from ingesting a large amount of fluoride in a short period of time. Ingesting 3–5 mg/kg may cause symptoms to appear, while the estimated lethal dose is 5–10 g (32–64 mg/kg) in adults and 16 mg/kg in children.
Symptoms. The fluoride ions bond with calcium to cause hypocalcemia, which is a fatal electrolyte imbalance. Hydrogen fluoride is corrosive and volatile to the skin, and fatal when inhaled. Most often, overconsumption of fluoride in toothpaste causes discoloring white streaks) on teeth. Over-ingestion can also cause abdominal pain, diarrhea, dysphagia, hypersalivation, mucosal injury, nausea, and vomiting. Can also cause headache, muscle weakness, hyperactive reflexes, muscular spasms, seizures, and tremors, followed by multi-organ failure in extreme cases. Death typically occurs from cardiac arrest and shock
Treatment. Oral administration and injection of calcium mixture is used in cases of hypocalcemia; topical application of calcium gluconate gel treats skin exposure to hydrogen fluoride. Rest of treatment is removal of source of fluoride and symptomatic treatment as it progresses. Game Terms: Yet another reason to avoid volcanoes, but a spring heavy in fluoride compounds can also be readily found in history. Blacksmiths that work with molten metals could also have long-term exposure. Fluoride is found in several types of rocks (fluorite), and ground and fed as an “antidote” or magic cure can cause poisoning as well.
Lethality. The gases are far more lethal, although prolonged ingestion of fluoride compounds can be fatal before discovered. Inhalation should be treated as a “not likely to be cured without divine intervention” scenario, but ingestion can be treated with spells or first aid.
Chlorine: Chlorine is a toxic gas that irritates the respiratory system. Because it is heavier than air, it tends to accumulate at the bottom of poorly ventilated spaces. Chlorine gas is a strong oxidizer, which may react with flammable materials. Chlorine is detectable in concentrations of as low as 0.2 ppm.
Symptoms. Coughing and vomiting may occur at 30 ppm and lung damage at 60 ppm. About 1000 ppm can be fatal after a few deep breaths of the gas. Breathing lower concentrations can aggravate the respiratory system, and exposure to the gas can irritate the eyes. Chlorine's toxicity comes from its oxidizing power. When chlorine is inhaled at concentrations above 30ppm it begins to react with water and cells which change it into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HclO). Treatment: Symptomatic.
Game Terms. Chlorine gas, also known as bertholite, was first used as a weapon in World War I by Germany on April 22, 1915 in the Second Battle of Ypres. As described by soldiers it smelled of a mixture between pepper and pineapple. It tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat and chest. Chlorine can react with water in the mucosa of the lungs to form hydrochloric acid, an irritant that can be lethal. The damage done by chlorine gas can be prevented by a gas mask, or other filtration method, which makes the overall chance of death by chlorine gas much lower than those of other chemical weapons. It was pioneered by a German scientist, later to be a Nobel laureate, Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. After its first use, chlorine was utilized by both sides as a chemical weapon, but it was soon replaced by deadlier gases phosgene and mustard gas.
Lethality. Small doses survivable with damage (magic would be nice right about now). High doses very lethal.
Cyanogen Chloride: CNCl Also known as CK, cyanogen chloride is a highly toxic blood agent, and was once proposed for use in chemical warfare. It causes immediate injury upon contact with the eyes or respiratory organs. Symptoms of exposure may include: loss of consciousness, convulsions, paralysis, rhinorrhea (runny nose), sore throat, drowsiness, confusion, nausea, vomiting, coughing, edema, and death. It is especially dangerous because it is capable of penetrating the filters in gas masks, according to U.S. analysts. CK is unstable due to polymerization, sometimes with explosive violence. Cyanogen chloride is listed in schedule 3 of the Chemical Weapons Convention: all production must be reported to the OPCW.
Sulphur: Elemental sulfur is non-toxic, but it can burn, producing combustion products that are toxic, such as carbon disulfide, carbon oxysulfide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide. Although sulfur dioxide is used as a food additive in small amounts, at high concentrations it reacts with moisture to form sulfurous acid. Hydrogen sulfide is toxic. Although very pungent at first, it quickly deadens the sense of smell, so potential victims may be unaware of its presence until death occurs. Sulfur trioxide, a volatile liquid at standard temperature and pressure, is extremely dangerous, especially in contact with water, which reacts with it to form sulfuric acid with the generation of much heat.
Symptoms. At very high levels, carbon disulfide may be life-threatening because it affects the nervous system. Carbon oxysulfide in high concentrations (>1000 ppm) can cause sudden collapse, convulsions, and death from respiratory paralysis. Sulfur dioxide in sufficient amounts creates sulfuric acid that in sufficient quantities may harm the lungs, eyes, or other tissues. Inhaling sulfur dioxide is associated with increased respiratory symptoms and disease, difficulty in breathing, and premature death. Treatment: Treatment involves immediate inhalation of amyl nitrite, injections of sodium nitrite, inhalation of pure oxygen, administration of bronchodilators to overcome eventual bronchospasm, and in some cases hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBO). HBO therapy has anecdotal support and remains controversial. Symptoms from light continuous exposure of hydrogen sulfide usually go away in a few weeks on their own.
Game Terms. Carbon disulfide is often released in volcanic eruptions and marshes. Carbon oxysulfide is found in the atmosphere from volcanoes and deep sea vents, but in modern day comes from car emissions, coal plants, fish processing, and petroleum manufacture, among others. Sulfur dioxide is also created by volcanoes and industrial process, reacting in high amounts with moisture to form sulfuric acid. Hydrogen sulfide is often found in marshes, swamps, and sewers from the breakdown of bacteria. It can also occur from volcanoes, natural gas reservoirs, and well water. Because all sulfur gases are heavier than air, there can be a pocket of any number of these just about anywhere.
Lethality. In small doses, survivable. In large doses, Big Time Death.
Hydrogen Sulfide: Hydrogen sulfide is considered a broad-spectrum poison, meaning that it can poison several different systems in the body, although the nervous system is most often affected. Since hydrogen sulfide occurs naturally in the environment and the gut, enzymes exist in the body capable of detoxifying it by oxidation to (harmless) sulfate. Hence, low levels of sulfide may be tolerated indefinitely. Many personal safety gas detectors, such as those used by utility, sewage and petrochemical workers, are set to alarm at as low as 5 to 10 ppm and to go into high alarm at 15 ppm. An interesting diagnostic clue of extreme poisoning by H2S is the discoloration of copper coins in the pockets of the victim. Exposure to lower concentrations can result in eye irritation, a sore throat and cough, nausea, shortness of breath, and fluid in the lungs. Long-term, low-level exposure may result in fatigue, loss of appetite, headaches, irritability, poor memory, and dizziness. 10–20 ppm is the borderline concentration for eye irritation. 50–100 ppm leads to eye damage. At 150–250 ppm the olfactory nerve is paralyzed after a few inhalations, and the sense of smell disappears, often together with awareness of danger. 320–530 ppm leads to pulmonary edema with the possibility of death. 530–1000 ppm causes strong stimulation of the central nervous system and rapid breathing, leading to loss of breathing. 800 ppm is the lethal concentration for 50% of humans for 5 minutes exposure. Concentrations over 1000 ppm cause immediate collapse with loss of breathing, even after inhalation of a single breath.
Antimony: This is a metalloid used in electronics, flame-proofing, paints, rubbers, enamels, ceramics, and many different alloys. In antiquity pastes of antimony were used in makeup in the Middle East, especially around the eyes. Artifacts of antimony have been found in ancient Egypt.
Symptoms. Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic. Clinically, antimony poisoning is very similar to arsenic poisoning. In small doses, antimony causes headache, dizziness, and depression. Larger doses cause violent and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in a few days.
Treatment. Garlic seems to reduce effects significantly; otherwise chelating agents are used to remove the antimony from the body.
Game Terms. Seen throughout antiquity and into today’s industries, antimony is readily available. Lethality: In small doses very survivable. In large doses, not without magic or divine intervention unless someone knows something about garlic or chelation.
Radioactivity (with help from wikipedia)
Radioactive Elements: Uranium, Thorium, Radium, transuraniums (plutonium, americium, etc.), Polonium, and Radioactive Isotopes (Cobalt-60, strontium-90). Radioactive Toxins: On top of being radioactive (more on that below), uranium is toxic, causing vomiting, nausea, albuminuria, decreased brain function, chronic fatigue, skin rashes, and myocarditis (from ingestion, which disappears after six months. Treatment is obvious removal from uranium. In game terms, the characters won’t even be thinking about the toxicity, considering they’ll be worried about the radiation.
Powdered thorium metal will often ignite spontaneously in air (it is pyrophoric) and should be handled carefully. Natural thorium decays very slowly compared to many other radioactive materials, and the alpha radiation emitted cannot penetrate human skin. Owning and handling small amounts of thorium, such as a gas mantle, is considered safe if care is taken not to ingest the thorium—lungs and other internal organs can be penetrated by alpha radiation. Exposure to an aerosol of thorium can lead to increased risk of cancers of the lung, pancreas and blood. Exposure to thorium internally leads to increased risk of liver diseases.
Radium is highly radioactive and its decay product, radon gas, is also radioactive. Since radium is chemically similar to calcium, it has the potential to cause great harm by replacing it in bones. Inhalation, injection, ingestion or body exposure to radium can cause cancer and other disorders. Stored radium should be ventilated to prevent accumulation of radon. Emitted energy from the decay of radium ionizes gases, affects photographic plates, causes sores on the skin, and produces many other detrimental effects.
Although transuranium poisoning (plutonium) is relatively survivable in terms of toxicity, its lethality due to readily reaching critical mass and producing massive amounts of radiation is something else entirely. Metallic plutonium is also a fire hazard.
Polonium is bad. By mass, polonium-210 is around 250,000 times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide (the actual lethal dose for 210Po is about 1 microgram for an 80 kg person (see below) compared with about 250 milligrams for hydrogen cyanide. The main hazard is its intense radioactivity (as an alpha emitter), which makes it very difficult to handle safely: one gram of Po will self-heat to a temperature of around 500 °C (932 °F). Even in microgram amounts, handling 210Po is extremely dangerous, requiring specialized equipment and strict handling procedures. Alpha particles emitted by polonium will damage organic tissue easily if polonium is ingested, inhaled, or absorbed, although they do not penetrate the epidermis and hence are not hazardous if the polonium is outside the body. It has been suggested that chelation will help treat exposed victims. Potentially lethal amounts of polonium are present in anti-static brushes sold to photographers.
Radiation: The dangers of radioactivity and of radiation were not immediately recognized. Acute effects of radiation were first observed in the use of X-rays when electric engineer Nikola Tesla intentionally subjected his fingers to X-rays in 1896. He published his observations concerning the burns that developed, though he attributed them to ozone rather than to X-rays. His injuries healed later. The genetic effects of radiation, including the effects on cancer risk, were recognized much later. In 1927 Hermann Joseph Muller published research showing genetic effects, and in 1946 was awarded the Nobel prize for his findings.
Before the biological effects of radiation were known, many physicians and corporations had begun marketing radioactive substances as patent medicine and radioactive quackery. Examples were radium enema treatments, and radium-containing waters to be drunk as tonics. Marie Curie spoke out against this sort of treatment, warning that the effects of radiation on the human body were not well understood. Curie later died from aplastic anemia assumed due to her work with radium, but later examination of her bones showed that she had been a careful laboratory worker and had a low burden of radium. A more likely cause was her exposure to unshielded X-ray tubes while a volunteer medical worker in WWI.
Radiation Poisoning: Radiation sickness is generally associated with acute (a single large) exposure. Nausea and vomiting are usually the main symptoms. The amount of time between exposure to radiation and the onset of the initial symptoms may be an indicator of how much radiation was absorbed. A few symptom-free days may pass between the appearance of the initial symptoms and the onset of symptoms of more severe illness associated with higher doses of radiation.
Nausea and vomiting generally occur within 24–48 hours after exposure to mild (1–2 Gy) doses of radiation. Headache, fatigue, and weakness are also seen with mild exposure.
Moderate (2–3.5 Gy of radiation) exposure is associated with nausea and vomiting beginning within 12–24 hours after exposure. In addition to the symptoms of mild exposure, fever, hair loss, infections, bloody vomit and stools, and poor wound healing are seen with moderate exposure.
Nausea and vomiting occur in less than 1 hour after exposure to severe (3.5–5.5 Gy) doses of radiation, followed by diarrhea and high fever in addition to the symptoms of lower levels of exposure.
Very severe (5.5–8 Gy of radiation) exposure is followed by the onset of nausea and vomiting in less than 30 minutes followed by the appearance of dizziness, disorientation, and low blood pressure in addition to the symptoms of lower levels of exposure. Severe exposure is fatal about 50% of the time.
Longer term exposure to radiation, at doses less than that which produces serious radiation sickness, can induce cancer as cell-cycle genes are mutated. If a cancer is radiation-induced, then the disease, the speed at which the condition advances, the prognosis, the degree of pain, and every other feature of the disease are not functions of the radiation dose to which the sufferer is exposed. In this case, function of dose is the probability chronic effects will develop.
One of the key points is that external exposure is often relatively easy to estimate, and the irradiated objects do not become radioactive (except for a case where the radiation is an intense neutron beam). It is possible for an object to be contaminated on the outer surface, assuming that no radioactivity enters the object it is still a case of external exposure and it is normally the case that decontamination is easy (wash the surface).
Nuclear warfare and bomb tests are more complex because a person can be irradiated by at least three processes. The first (the major cause of burns) is not caused by ionizing radiation. There are thermal burns caused by heat, beta burns caused by shallow ionizing radiation, and gamma burns from high penetrating radiation.
When the basal cell layer of the skin is damaged by radiation, inflammation, erythema, and dry or moist desquamation can occur. Also, hair follicles may be damaged, causing hair loss. Within a few hours after irradiation, a transient and inconsistent erythema (associated with itching) can occur. Then, a latent phase may occur and last from a few days up to several weeks, when intense reddening, blistering, and ulceration of the irradiated site are visible. In most cases, healing occurs by regenerative means; however, very large skin doses can cause permanent hair loss, damaged sebaceous and sweat glands, atrophy, fibrosis, decreased or increased skin pigmentation, and ulceration or necrosis of the exposed tissue.
When radioactive compounds enter the human body, the effects are different from those resulting from exposure to an external radiation source. Especially in the case of alpha radiation, which normally does not penetrate the skin, the exposure can be much more damaging after ingestion or inhalation. The radiation exposure is normally expressed as a committed effective dose equivalent (CEDE).Some poisoned beings exposed will not be radiated, but their offspring will be.
Prevention: Increasing distance from the radiation source reduces the dose due to the inverse-square law for a point source. Distance can be increased by means as simple as handling a source with forceps rather than fingers. The longer that humans are subjected to radiation the larger the dose will be. In peacetime, radiation workers are taught to work as quickly as possible when performing a task that exposes them to radiation.
Treatment: Potassium iodide (KI), administered orally immediately after exposure, may be used to protect the thyroid from ingested radioactive iodine in the event of an accident or terrorist attack at a nuclear power plant, or the detonation of a nuclear explosive. KI would not be effective against a dirty bomb unless the bomb happened to contain radioactive iodine, and even then it would only help to prevent thyroid cancer. It has also been found that if a population of cells is given a dose before being set aside (without being irradiated) for a length of time before being irradiated again, then the radiation causes less cell death, which means bigger doses with less exposure in between are less likely to kill than longer, smaller doses. Also, partial body exposure at higher doses is more survivable than whole body exposure at lower doses.
Treatment reversing the effects of irradiation is currently not possible. Anesthetics and antiemetics are administered to counter the symptoms of exposure, as well as antibiotics for countering secondary infections due to the resulting immune system deficiency. There are also a number of substances used to mitigate the prolonged effects of radiation poisoning, by eliminating the remaining radioactive materials, post-exposure.
Game Terms: Have a ball. In a world where magic is possible, so is radiation. Someone exhibiting radiation poisoning? Explain that fireball that he nearly got hit with actually changed the gases in the air into radioactive isotopes. Or don’t explain.
Other Possible Deadly Combinations of Rocks and Humans
- Amber - toxic dust, fumes, possible ingestive toxicity from poisonous plant material.
- Coral - organic, may contain bacteria as well as pollutants from toxic materials in the water it forms in
- Meteorite - may contain many toxic substances
- Mother of Pearl - organic, may contain bacteria as well as pollutants from toxic materials in the water it forms in
- Opal - toxic dust for inhalation at least, so if you must use opal for an elixir, etc., be sure to carefully clean off any opal dust
- Pearl - organic, may contain bacteria as well as pollutants from toxic materials in the water it forms in
Next Article: Fire in the Sky (Pyrotechnics)
